Mystery and Excellence of the Human Body

Notes

On the positive effect of laughter on health

... While scientists had earlier studied the general effects of laughter on the body, Cousins' experience has spurred the medical profession to new efforts to find out how beneficial laughter is in aiding the body's healing process. Studies have shown that humour has a profound connection with physiological states and that a surprising number of patients have laughed themselves back to health, as Cousins did, or at any rate have exploited their sense of humour as a positive, adaptive response to their illnesses. In fact, a link between humour and longevity has been established.

Further, laughter has a definite anaesthetic effect, revealing a kind of inverse relationship between humour and pain. A good guffaw is accompanied by a loss of muscle tone — the opposite condition of pain-producing muscle tension — which explains why muscle-related pains may temporarily disappear with a hearty laugh. Other studies suggest that laughter triggers the brain to release catecholamine hormones, which in turn cause the release of endorphins, the body's natural painkillers. Some scientists, however, feel that enjoying a good giggle is in itself a psychological distraction from the pain and does not require a physiological explanation.

Other physical spin-offs from laughter are the healthful massage it gives the internal organs (Cousins calls it "internal jogging"), the diffusion of anger that results from it — preventing heart attacks in some cases — and the alleviation of depression which may possibly play a role in reducing the risk of cancer. Stanford University's Dr. William F. Fry, one of the world's leading laughter researchers, has discovered that during a hearty laugh the muscles are activated, the heart rate increases and respiration is amplified with an increase in oxygen exchange — all similar to the desirable effects of athletic exercise. Facial muscles as well as those of the arms, legs and stomach, all get a workout as do the diaphragm, the thorax, and the circulatory and endocrine systems....

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Extracts from "Jest for the health of it"

by Jacqueline Singh, Span Magazine — September 1989

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Man-made drugs versus self-healing capacities of the body

Isn't buying a drug as good as making it? Not by a long shot. The so-called active ingredient in a man-made drug contains very little know-how compared to the original chemical produced by the body. It would almost be fairer to call the drug an inert ingredient.

The reason for this lies at the level of our cells. The outer membrane of each cell, or the cell wall, is outfitted with numerous sites called receptors. The cell wall itself is smooth, but these receptors are "sticky" — they are made of complex molecular chains whose last links are open-ended, each one waiting for another molecule to come along and bind with it. In other words, receptors are like keyholes into which only very specific keys will fit. For a drug to work — whether morphine, Valium, digitalis, or almost anything else — it must be the key that fits some precisely chosen receptor on the cell wall and no other.

The hormones, enzymes; and other biochemicals produced by our bodies have superb knowledge about which receptors they should fit into. The molecules themselves actually seem able to pick and choose among various sites — it is uncanny to follow their tracks under an electron microscope as they make a beeline to where they are needed. Also, the body can release hundreds of different chemicals at a time and orchestrate each one with regard to the whole.

If you hear a hot rod backfire on the street outside your window and jump in your chair, your instantaneous reaction is the outcome of a complex internal event. The trigger for the event is a burst of adrenaline from your adrenal glands. Carried into the bloodstream, this adrenaline signals reactions from your heart, which starts to pump blood faster; from your blood vessels, which contract and force up your blood pressure; from your liver, which puts out extra fuel in the form of glucose; from your pancreas, which secretes insulin so that more glucose can be metabolized; and from your stomach and intestines, which immediately stop digesting food so that more energy can be shunted elsewhere.

All this activity, happening at a furious pace and with powerful effects everywhere in your body, is coordinated by the brain, which uses the pituitary gland to guide many of the hormonal signals just described, not to mention various other chemical signals that go racing down your neurons to focus your eyes, prick up you ears, jerk your back muscles upright.-.and swivel your head in alarm.

To make this whole reaction happen and then to make it go away again (for the body, unlike a man-made drug, knows how to-reverse every one of these processes just as neatly as it began), the same key-m-the-lock mechanism is employed everywhere. It is all-so deceptively simple, yet if-you

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attempt to duplicate this event with a drug, the results are nowhere near as precise, orderly, and beautifully orchestrated. In fact, they are chaotic. Injecting adrenaline, insulin, or glucose separately into the body gives it a crude jolt. The chemicals immediately flood all the receptor sites without coordination from the brain. Instead of talking to the body, they assault it with single-minded insistence. Even though the chemical make-up of adrenaline is identical no matter where it is derived, the critical ingredient of intelligence must be present; otherwise, the drug's action is a mockery of the real thing....

The frustrating reality, as far as medical researchers are concerned, is that we already know that the living body is the best pharmacy ever devised. It produces diuretics, painkillers, tranquilizers, sleeping pills, antibiotics, and indeed everything manufactured by the drug companies, but it makes them much, much better. The dosage is always right and given on time; side effects are minimal or nonexistent; and the directions for using the drug are included in the drug itself, as part of its built-in intelligence.

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Extracts from Deepak Chopra, M.D., Quantum Healing,

(pp.42 to 45), Bantam Books, New York 1989

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Main Systems of Healing

— Acupuncture

Acupuncture is a therapy based on the principle that there is a nervous connection between the organs of the body and the body surface. It works on the basis that all types of diseases produce tender areas at certain points on the body which disappear when the disease is cured. These points are called acupuncture points. According to the Chinese who invented Acupuncture a few millennia BC, there are up to 1000 points. They further classified these points into twelve main groups according to lines on the body surface called meridians. Each meridian is named after one important organ which it is affecting.

The Chinese believe that the life forces of the body — Chi — circulate along those meridians. Disease is a disturbance in the circulation of Chi. Acupuncture aims at reestablishing the correct flow of energy in the body.

The method for cure is a stimulation of the skin in the proper places. The essential skills in acupuncture are diagnosis (generally done by taking pulses) and precise knowledge of the points to be stimulated to obtain results. The most common technique makes use of small needles which can be applied on many points at the same time.

—Ayurveda

Ayurveda may well be the most ancient system of medicine. Its name means "the science of life" and covers sacred texts which are an addition to an ancient Indian sacred writings called "Rig-veda". It has been practised all over India for millennia and continues to be widely used up to the present days.

There is a complex philosophical background of Ayurveda which reflects a total vision of the human being and its place in the universe. According to Ayurveda, human beings can be classified into three main categories describing types of qualities, Tamas, Rajas and Sattva. Further their bodies belong to different main types, Pitta (bile), Kapha (phlegm) and Vayu (wind). All these elements and more have to be taken into account to reach proper diagnosis and decide upon cure.

An ayurvedic doctor treats a patient as a whole as he sees him as a unique individual subject to unique imbalances in his life. Ayurvedic drugs and medicines have been developed since so long that there are a very large number of them, but their common characteristic is that they aim at assisting the body's healing powers. The patient is supposed to take a very active part in the cure through such methods as fasting, baths, applications to the skin, cleansing diets, enemas etc...

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—Allopathy

Allopathy is the dominant system of medicine in the modern world. Its principle (as manifest in the name) is to treat disease with "contrary" remedies (opposite to Homeopathy treating with "like" remedies).

Allopathy has known an enormous development with thousands of different remedies available all over the world, and a considerable research effort to develop new remedies or improve upon old ones. There have been also great advances in medical technologies with the introduction of ever more sophisticated machines for diagnosis and treatments.

While progress and even triumphs of modern allopathic medicine, particularly in surgery and diagnostic techniques, are very real, there is a growing concern about enormous costs, excessive consumption of drugs, pernicious side effects of many allopathic treatments and a tendency to extreme specialization which tend to neglect the specificity and wholeness of each human being.

—Homeopathy

Homeopathy is a system of medicine based on the principle that agents which produce certain signs and symptoms in health also cure those signs and symptoms in disease.

Homeopathy was developed in the early 1800's by a German physician, Samuel Hahnemann. It is a medical practice based on an attempt to "let like cure like". Poison ivy, for example, causes rashes, so homeopathic doctors treat rashes with poison ivy. Onions cause crying and a watery discharge from the nose, therefore onions may be used to treat colds.

Homeopathic remedies are discovered through a practice called proving. In proving, various substances are given to healthy people and their effects care fully observed. Homeopaths believe that a drug which produces symptoms of a disease in a healthy person can help cure a person who has that disease. Hahnemann taught that medicines become more potent as they are diluted, and therefore most homeopathic remedies are administered in minute doses. This also helps to minimize harmful side effects.

In essence, homeopathy depends on the idea that the body contains its own healing properties and defence mechanisms and that these can be activated to eliminate illness. Hahnemann wrote "All diseases are, in fact, diseases of the whole organism" and he considered them to be a sign that the vital force in the human organism was out of balance.

Homeopathy is a "whole person medicine". Homeopaths usually make a detailed case history for each patient, including many physical symptoms but also psychological aspects.

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— Naturopathy

Naturopathy is a way of treating illnesses which works on the principle that healing depends upon the action of natural healing forces present in the human body and nature.

The concept of the healing power of nature is very ancient. It certainly goes back to the time of Hippocrates in 400 BC as Hippocrates himself seems to have been one of the first to realize the importance of nature's own healing powers. To him disease appeared not purely as a malady but also, by no means least, as an exertion, an effort of the body to reestablish the disturbed equilibrium of the function. Recovery is thus shown to be the work of Nature, whose healing powers alone, or supplemented by medical aid, achieve the aim.

Naturopathy is a form of medicine practised widely throughout the world although it is not always called by this name. It is basically concerned with discovering and removing the root cause of disease whether it be chemical (from faulty eating, drinking, breathing or elimination), mechanical (spinal malalignment, muscular tension, stiff joints or bad posture) or psychological. A patient's symptoms help a naturopath to arrive at diagnosis. What he tries to do is to treat the patient and not his symptoms. Naturopaths work on the principle that acute disease is simply a manifestation of the healing forces' efforts to get the body back to normal.

A naturopath is really a teacher more than a doctor. Most are not medically trained but do undergo a long and technical training. His training is aimed at enabling him to assess a patient and then to make suggestions as to what he should do in order to rid himself of his ailments and prevent future ones.

So by all the means at their disposal naturopaths encourage the patient to restore balance and wholeness to his life.

—A few other healing methods

Besides these main systems there are many other types of healing methods. We describe briefly a few below :

Bach Flower remedies

Illness comes from imbalances provoked by negative states of mind, which can be cured by the positive vital power of flowers (somewhat similar to homeopathy in principle).

Radiesthesia methods

Use of divining to diagnose disease and select remedies.

Reflexology

An ancient Chinese and Indian diagnostic and therapeutic system in which the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands are massaged deeply.

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Sound therapy

The use of sound waves to heal.

Herbalism

The internal and external use of plant-based remedies to heal virtually any human ailment.

Healing

Alleviation and cure of disease by a human being, with or without special methods such as imposition of hands, prayers, mantras, etc.

Macrobiotics

A personal philosophy involving wholesome behaviour and eating. Food, seen as central to life, is selected according to the antagonistic but complementary principles, Ying and Yang.

In the recent years, particularly in Western societies, there has been a great development of new methods and techniques of healing, often derived from Eastern philosophy, methods and techniques. This is a field in constant and rapid development which reflects an increase concern with holistic health and mind/body harmony.

A Tibetan physician giving healing herbs to one of his patients

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First Aid

In a book dedicated to the body, we felt that First Aid had its place. If readers take care to go through the following pages, most may realize that we tend to be quite ignorant of even the basics of the initial care to be given in certain specific circumstances. It is another aspect of the common ignorance about the functioning of the body which makes most of us only think of calling a doctor in such circumstances as described below. We should certainly do that, but a little bit of correct knowledge about what should be done — or often enough, what should be avoided — can make the difference between life and death until the doctor arrives.

— Fever

When a person's body temperature is too hot, we say he has a fever. Fever itself is not a sickness, but a sign of many different sicknesses. However, high fever can be dangerous, especially in a small child. When a person has a fever:

• Uncover him completely.

Small children should be undressed completely and left naked until the fever goes down. Never wrap the child in clothing or blankets.

» To wrap up a child with fever is dangerous. Fresh air or a breeze will not harm a person with fever. On the contrary, a fresh breeze helps lower the fever.

• Also take aspirin to lower fever. Small children can be given either acetaminophen (paracetamol), children's aspirin, or a piece of a regular aspirin tablet.

• Anyone who has a fever should drink lots of water, juices, or other liquids. For small children, especially babies, drinking water should be boiled first (and then cooled).

• When possible, find and treat the cause of the fever.

— Very High Fevers

A very high fever can be dangerous if it is not brought down quickly. It can cause fits (convulsions) or even permanent brain damage (paralysis, mental slowness, epilepsy, etc.). High fever is most dangerous for small children. When a fever goes very high (over 40° c), it must be lowered at once:

• Strip the person naked.

• Fan him.

• Pour cool water over him, or put cloths soaked in cool water on his chest and forehead. Fan the cloths and change them often to keep them cool. Continue to do this until the fever goes down (below 38°c).

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• Give him plenty of cool water to drink.

• Give a medicine to bring down fever. Aspirin works well. Dosage (using 300 mg. adult tablets):

→ Persons over 12 years: 2 tablets every 4 hours

→ Children 6 to 12 years: 1 tablet every 4 hours

→ Children 3 to 6 years: 1/2 tablet every 4 hours

→ Children under 3 years: 1/4 tablet every 4 hours

If a person cannot swallow aspirin, grind it up, mix it with some water, and put it up the anus as an enema or with a syringe without the needle. Some doctors consider acetaminophen (paracetamol) safer than aspirin for small children.

» If a high fever does not go down soon or if fits (convulsions) begin, continue cooling with water and seek medical help at once.

—Shock

Shock is a life-threatening condition that develops when the body's blood pressure drops dangerously low. It can result from great pain, a large burn, losing a lot of blood, severe illnesses, dehydration, or severe allergic reaction. Signs of shock:

→ weak, rapid pulse (more than 100 per minute)

→ "cold sweat": pale, cold, damp skin

→ mental confusion, weakness, or loss of consciousness.

What to do to prevent or treat shock:

At the first sign of shock; or if there is risk of shock:

• Have the person lie down with his feet higher than his head.

(However, if he has a severe head injury put him in a "half-sitting" position)

• If the person feels cold, cover him with a blanket.

• If he is conscious, give him warm water or other lukewarm drinks.

• If he is in pain, give him aspirin or another pain medicine.

• Keep calm and reassure the person.

If the person is unconscious:

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• Lay him on his side with his head low, tilted back and to one side.

• If he seems to be choking, pull his tongue forward with your finger.

• If he has vomited, clear his mouth immediately. Be sure his head is low, titled back, and to one side so he does not breathe vomit into his lungs.

• Do not give him anything by mouth until he becomes conscious.

• If you or someone nearby knows how, give intravenous solution (normal saline) at a fast drip.

• Seek medical help fast.

—Loss of consciousness

Common causes of loss of consciousness are:

Drunkenness, a hit on the head (getting knocked out), shock, poisoning, fainting (from fright, weakness, etc.), heat stroke, stroke, heart attack. If a person is unconscious and you do not know why, immediately check each of the following:

→ 1. Is he breathing well? If not, tilt his head way back and pull the jaw and tongue forward. If something is stuck in his throat, pull it out. If he is not breathing, use mouth-to-mouth breathing at once.

→ 2. Is he losing a lot of blood? If so, control the bleeding.

→ 3. Is he in shock (moist, pale skin; weak, rapid pulse)? If so, lay him with his head lower than his feet and loosen his clothing.

→ 4. Could it be heat stroke (no sweat, high fever, hot, red skin)? If so, shade him from the sun, keep his head higher than his feet, and soak him with cold water (ice water if possible).

If there is any chance that the unconscious person is badly injured: It is best not to move him until he becomes conscious. If you have to move him, do so with great care, because if his neck or back is broken, any change of position may cause greater injury.

Look for wounds or broken bones, but move the person as little as possible.

Do not bend his back or neck.

» Never give anything by mouth to a person who is unconscious.

— When something gets stuck in the throat

When food or something else sticks in a person's throat and he cannot breathe, quickly do this:

• Stand behind him and wrap your arms around his waist,

• put your fist against his belly above the navel and below the ribs,

• and press into his belly with a sudden strong upward jerk. This forces the air from his lungs and should free his throat.

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Repeat several times if necessary.

If the person is a lot bigger than you, or is already unconscious, quickly do this:

• Lay him on his back.

• Sit over him towards the feet, with the heel of your lower hand on his belly between his navel and ribs.

• Make a quick, strong upward push.

Repeat several times if necessary.

If he still cannot breathe, try mouth-to-mouth breathing.

» Always start mouth-to-mouth breathing at once before trying to get water out of the drowning person's chest.

What to do when breathing stops: Mouth-to-mouth breathing

Common causes for breathing to stop are:

→ something stuck in the throat

→ the tongue or thick mucus blocking the throat of an unconscious person

→ drowning, choking on smoke, or poisoning

→ a strong blow to the head or chest

→ a heart attack.

A person will die within 4 minutes if he does not breathe.

»If a person stops breathing, begin mouth-to-mouth breathing immediately.

Do all of the following as quickly as you can:

• Step 1: Quickly remove anything stuck in the mouth or throat. Pull the tongue forward. If there is mucus in the throat, quickly try to clear it out.

• Step 2: Quickly lay the person face up, tilt his head way back, and pull his jaw forward.

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• Step 3: Pinch his nostrils closed with your fingers, open his mouth wide, cover his mouth with yours, and blow strongly into his lungs so that his chest rises. Pause to let the air come back out and blow again. Repeat about 15 times per minute. With newborn babies, breathe very gently about 25 times per minute. Continue mouth-to-mouth breathing until the person can breathe by himself, or until there is no doubt he is dead. Sometimes you must keep it up for an hour or more.

— Emergencies caused by heat

Heat cramps:

In hot weather people who work hard and sweat a lot sometimes get painful cramps in their legs, arms, or stomach. These occur because the body lacks salt.

Treatment: Put a teaspoon of salt in a litre of boiled water and drink it.

Heat Exhaustion:

Signs: A person who works and sweats a lot in hot weather may become very pale and weak and perhaps feel faint. The skin is cool and moist. The pulse is rapid and weak.

Treatment: Have the person lie down in a cool place/raise his feet, and rub his legs. Give salt water to drink: 1 teaspoon of salt in a litre of water. (Give nothing by mouth while the person is unconscious.)

Heat Stroke:

Heat stroke is not common, but is very dangerous. It occurs especially in older people and alcoholics during hot weather.

Signs: The skin is red, very hot, and dry. Not even the armpits are moist. The person has a very high fever, sometimes more than 42° C. Often he is unconscious.

Treatment: The body temperature must be lowered immediately. Put the person in the shade. Soak him with cold water (ice water if possible) and fan him. Continue until the fever drops. Seek medical help.

Differences between "Heat exhaustion" and. "Heat stroke"

Heat exhaustion: sweaty, pale, cool skin, large pupils, no fever, weakness

Heat stroke: dry, red, hot skin, high fever, the person is very ill or unconscious

—How to control bleeding from a wound

• Raise the injured part.

• With a clean cloth (or your hand if there is no cloth) press directly on the wound. Keep pressing until the bleeding stops. This may take 15 minutes or sometimes an hour or more.

If the bleeding cannot be controlled by pressing on the wound, and if the person

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is losing a lot of blood, do the following:

• Keep pressing on the wound.

• Keep the wounded part as high as possible.

• Tie the arm or leg as close to the wound as possible between the wound and the body.

• Tighten enough to control the bleeding.

• For the tie, use a folded cloth or a wide belt; never use thin rope, string, or wire.

Precautions

→ Tie the limb only if bleeding is severe and cannot be controlled by pressing directly on the wound.

→ Loosen the tie for a moment every half hour to see if it is still needed and to let the blood circulate. Leaving it too long may damage the arm or leg so much it must be cut off.

→ Never use dirt, kerosene, lime, or coffee to stop bleeding.

→ If bleeding or injury is severe, raise the feet and lower the head to prevent shock.

— How to stop nose-bleeds

• Sit quietly.

• Pinch the nose firmly for 10 minutes or until the bleeding has stopped. If this does not control the bleeding:

• Pack the nostril with a wad of cotton, leaving part of it outside the nose. If possible, first wet the cotton with hydrogen peroxide or vaseline.

• Then pinch the nose firmly again. Do not let go for 10 minutes or more. Leave the cotton in place for a few hours after the bleeding stops; then take it out very carefully.

If a person's nose bleeds often, smear a little vaseline inside the nostrils twice a day. Eating oranges, tomatoes, and other fruits may help to strengthen the veins so that the nose bleeds less.

In older persons especially, bleeding may come from the back part of the nose and cannot be stopped by pinching it. In this case, have the person hold a cork, corn cob, or other similar object between his teeth and, leaning forward, sit quietly and try not to swallow until the bleeding stops. (The cork helps keep him from swallowing, and that gives the blood a chance to clot.)

— Cuts, Scrapes, and small wounds

»Cleanliness is of first importance in preventing infection and helping wounds to heal.

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To treat a wound:

• First, wash your hands very well with soap and water.

• Then wash the wound well with soap and boiled water.

When cleaning the wound, be careful to clean out all the dirt. Lift up and clean under any flaps of skin. You can use a clean tweezers or other instruments to remove bits of dirt, but always boil them first to be sure they are sterile. If possible, squirt out the wound with boiled water in a syringe or suction bulb.

Any bit of dirt that is left in a wound can cause an infection.

» NEVER put animal or human feces or mud on a wound. These can cause dangerous infections, such as tetanus.

» NEVER put alcohol or tincture of iodine directly into a wound; doing so will damage the flesh and make healing slower. Use soap and water.

Large cuts: how to close them:

A recent cut that is very clean will heal faster if you bring the edges together so the cut stays closed.

Close a deep cut only if all of the following are true:

→ the cut is less than 12 hours old,

→ the cut is very clean, and

→ it is impossible to get a health worker to close it the same day.

Before closing the cut, wash it very well with boiled water and soap. If possible, squirt it out with a syringe and water. Be absolutely sure that no dirt is left hidden in the cut.

There are two methods to close a cut:

1) "Butterfly" bandages of adhesive tapes

Fold a piece of adhesive tape in the middle, cut a piece on each side of the fold. After unfolding the piece of tape, press the sides of the cut together and carefully place the adhesive tape, making sure that the shorter middle part is on the cut.

2) Stitches or sutures with thread

To find out if a cut needs stitches see if the edges of the skin come together by themselves. If they do, usually no stitches are needed.

To stitch a wound:

• Boil a sewing needle and a thin thread (nylon or silk is best) for 10 minutes.

• Wash the wound with boiled water and soap, as has been described.

• Wash your hands very well with boiled water and soap.

• Sew the wound like this:

Make the first stitch in the middle of the cut, and tie it closed.

Make enough other stitches to close the whole cut.

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• Leave the stitches in place for 6 to 12 days (on the face 6 days; the body 8 days; the hand or foot 12 days). Then remove the stitches: cut the thread on one side of the knot and pull the knot until the thread comes out.

» Warning: Only close wounds that are very clean and less than 12 hours old. Old, dirty, or infected wounds must be left open. Bites from people, dogs, pigs, or other animals should also be left open. Closing these can cause dangerous infections.

» If the wound that has been closed shows any signs of infection, remove the stitches immediately and leave the wound open.

Bandages:

Bandages are used to help keep wounds clean. For this reason, bandages or pieces of cloth used to cover wounds must always be clean themselves. Cloth used for bandages should be washed and then dried with an iron or in the sun, in a clean, dust-free place.

If possible, cover the wound with a sterile gauze pad before bandaging. These pads are often sold in sealed envelopes in pharmacies. Or prepare your own sterile gauze or cloth. Wrap it in thick paper, seal it with tape, and bake it for 20 minutes in an oven. Putting a pan of water in the oven under the cloth will keep it from charring.

» It is better to have no bandage at all than one that is dirty or wet.

If a bandage gets wet or dirt gets under it, take the bandage off, wash the cut again, and put on a clean bandage.

» Caution: Be careful that a bandage that goes around a limb is not so tight it cuts off the flow of blood.

Many small scrapes and cuts do not need bandages. They heal best if washed with soap and water and left open to the air. The most important thing is to keep them clean.

— Infected wounds: how to recognize and treat them

A wound is infected if:

→ it becomes red, swollen, hot, and painful,

→ it has pus,

→ or if it begins to smell bad.

The infection is spreading to other parts of the body if:

→ it causes fever,

→ there is a red line above the wound,

→ or if the lymph nodes become swollen and tender. Lymph nodes (often called "glands") are little traps for germs that form small lumps under the skin when they get infected.

Swollen lymph nodes behind the ear point to an infection on the head or scalp,

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often caused by sores or lice.

Swollen nodes below the ear and on the neck indicate infections of the ear, face, or head (or tuberculosis).

Swollen nodes below the jaw indicate infections of the teeth or throat.

Swollen nodes in the armpit indicate an infection of the arm, head, or breast (or sometimes breast cancer).

Swollen nodes in the groin indicate an infection of the leg, foot, genitals, or anus.

—Treatment of infected wounds:

• Put hot compresses over the wound for 20 minutes 4 times a day. Hold an infected hand or foot in a bucket of hot water with soap or potassium permanganate (1 teaspoon to a bucket). .

• Keep the infected part at rest and elevated (raised above the level of the heart).

• If the infection is severe or the person has not been vaccinated against tetanus, use an antibiotic like penicillin.

» Warning: If the wound has a bad smell, if brown or grey liquid oozes out, or if the skin around it turns black and forms air bubbles or blisters, this may be gangrene. Seek medical help fast.

—Burns

Prevention:

Most burns can be prevented. Take special care with children:

→ Do not let small babies go near a fire.

→ Keep lamps and matches out of reach.

→ Turn handles of pans on the stove so children cannot reach them.

Minor burns that do not form blisters (1st degree):

To help ease the pain and lessen damage caused by a minor burn, put the burned part in cold water at once. No other treatment is needed. Take aspirin for pain.

Bums that Cause Blisters (2nd degree):

Do not break blisters.

If the blisters are broken, wash gently with soap and boiled water that has been cooled. Sterilize a little vaseline by heating it until it boils and spread it on a piece of sterile gauze. Then put .the gauze on the burn.

If there is no vaseline, leave the bum uncovered. Never smear on grease or butter.

» It is very important to keep the burn as clean as possible. Protect it from dirt, dust, and flies.

If signs of infection appear — pus, bad smell, fever, or swollen lymph nodes — apply compresses of warm salt water (1 teaspoon salt to 1 litre water) 3 times a

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day. Boil both the water and cloth before use. With great care, remove the dead skin and flesh. You can spread on a little antibiotic ointment such as Neosporin. In severe cases, consider taking an antibiotic such as penicillin or ampicillin. Deep Burns (3rd degree) that destroy the skin and expose raw or charred flesh are always serious, as are any burns that cover large areas of the body. Take the person to a health centre at once. In the meantime wrap the burned part with a very clean cloth or towel.

If it is impossible to get medical help, treat the burn as described above. If you do not have Vaseline, leave the burn in the open air, covering it only with a loose cotton cloth or sheet to protect it from dust and flies. Keep the cloth very clean and change it each time it gets dirty with liquid or blood from the burn. Give penicillin.

» Never put grease, fat, hides, coffee, herbs, or feces on a burn.

Special precautions for very serious burns:

→ Any person who has been badly burned can easily go into shock because of combined pain, fear, and the loss of body fluids from the oozing burn. Comfort and reassure the burned person. Give him aspirin for the pain and codeine if you can get it. Bathing open wounds in slightly salty water also helps calm pain. Put 1 teaspoon of salt for each litre of boiled (and cooled) water.

→ Give the burned person plenty of liquid. If the burned area is large (more than twice the size of his hand), make up the following drink: To a litre of water add half a teaspoon of salt and half a teaspoon of bicarbonate of soda. Also put in 2 or 3 tablespoons of sugar or honey and some orange or lemon juice if possible. The burned person should drink this as often as possible, especially until he urinates frequently.

→ It is important for persons who are badly burned to eat foods rich in protein. No type of food needs to be avoided.

Burns around the joints:

When someone is badly burned between the fingers, in the armpit, or at other joints, gauze pads with vaseline on them should be put between the burned surfaces to prevent them from growing together as they heal. Also, fingers, arms, and legs should be straightened completely several times a day while healing. This is painful but helps prevent stiff scars that limit movement.

— Broken bones (fractures)

When a bone is broken, the most important thing to do is keep the bone in a fixed position. This prevents more damage and lets it mend.

Before trying to move or carry a person with a broken bone, keep the bones from moving with splints, strips of bark, or a sleeve of cardboard. Later a plaster

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cast can be put on the limb at a health centre, or perhaps you can make a "cast" according to local tradition.

Setting broken bones:

→ If the bones seem more or less in the right position, it is better not to move them — this could do more harm than good.

→ If the bones are far out of position and the break is recent, you can try to 'set' or straighten them before putting on a cast. The sooner the bones are set, the easier it will be.

Broken thigh bone:

A broken upper leg often needs special attention. It is best to splint the whole body and to take the injured person to a health centre at once.

Broken necks and backs:

If there is any chance a person's back or neck has been broken, be very careful when moving him. Try not to change his position. If possible, bring a health worker before moving him. If you must move him, do so without bending his back or neck. For instructions on how to move the injured person, see below. Broken ribs

These are very painful, but almost always heal on their own. It is better not to splint or bind the chest. The best treatment is to take aspirin — and rest. It may take months before the pain is gone completely. A broken rib does not often puncture a lung. But if the person coughs blood or develops breathing difficulties, use antibiotics (penicillin or ampicillin) and seek medical help.

Broken bones that break through the skin (compound fractures):

Since the danger of infection is very great in these cases, it is always better to get help from a health worker or doctor in caring for the injury. Clean the wound and the exposed bone very thoroughly with boiled water. Never put the bone back into the wound until the wound and the bone are absolutely clean.

Splint the limb to prevent more injury.

If the bone has broken the skin, use an antibiotic immediately to prevent infections: penicillin or ampicillin in high doses.

» Caution: Never rub or massage a broken limb or a limb that may possibly be broken.

How to move a badly injured person:

• With great care, lift the injured person without bending him any where.

• Have another person put the stretcher in place.

• With the help of everyone, place the injured person carefully on the stretcher.

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If the neck is injured or broken/put bags of sand or tightly folded clothing on each side of the head to keep it from moving.

Serious sprains need at least 3 to 4 weeks to heal. Broken bones take longer. You can keep the twisted joint in the correct position for healing by using a homemade cast or an elastic bandage.

» Caution: If the foot seems very loose or "floppy" or if the person has trouble moving his toes, look for medical help. Surgery may be needed. To relieve pain and swelling, keep the sprained part raised high. During the first 24 hours, put ice or cold, wet cloths over the swollen joint. This helps reduce swelling and pain. Also take aspirin.

After 24 hours soak the sprain in hot water several times a day.

» Never rub or massage a sprain or broken bone. It does no good and can do more harm.

— Poisoning

Many children die from swallowing things that are poisonous. To protect your children, take the following precautions:

→ Keep all poisons out of reach of children.

→ Never keep kerosene, gasoline, or other poisons in cola or soft drink bottles, because children may try to drink them.

Some common poisons to watch out for:

→ rat poison-DDT, lindane, sheep dip, and other insecticides

→ medicine (any kind when much is swallowed; take special care with iron pills)

→ tincture of iodine, bleach and detergents, cigarettes, rubbing or wood alcohol

→ poisonous leaves, seeds, berries, castor beans, matches, kerosene, gasoline, petrol, lye.

Treatment: If you suspect poisoning, do the following immediately:

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• Make the child vomit. Put your finger in his throat, give him a tablespoon of syrup of ipecac, or make him drink water with soap or salt in it.

• Have the child drink all he can of milk, beaten eggs, or flour mixed with water. If you have it, give him a tablespoon of powdered charcoal. Keep giving him more milk, eggs, or flour and keep him vomiting until the vomit is clear.

» Caution: Do not make a person vomit if he has swallowed kerosene, gasoline (petrol), or strong acids or corrosive substances (lye).

Cover the person if he feels cold, but avoid too much heat. If poisoning is severe, look for medical help.

— Snakebite

When someone has been bitten by a snake, try to find out if the snake was poisonous or harmless. Their bite marks are different:

Fang marks of poisonous snake :

The bite of a poisonous snake leaves marks of the two fangs (and at rare times, other little marks made by the teeth). ,

Non-poisonous snake:

The bite of a snake that is not poisonous leaves only two rows of teeth marks, but no fang marks. People often believe that certain harmless snakes are poisonous. Try to find out which of the snakes in your area are truly poisonous and which are not. Contrary to popular opinion, boa constrictors and pythons are not poisonous. Please do not kill non-poisonous snakes, because they do no harm. On the contrary, they kill mice and other pests that do lots of damage. Some even kill poisonous snakes.

Treatment for poisonous snakebite:

• Stay quiet; do not move the part that has been bitten. The more it is moved, the more rapidly the poison will spread through the body. A per son who has been bitten on the foot should not walk, not even one step if it can be avoided. Carry him on a stretcher.

• Tie a cloth around the limb, just above the bite. Do not tie it very tight, and loosen it for a moment every half hour.

• With a very clean knife (sterilized in a flame) make a cut into each fang mark, about 1 cm. long and 1/2 cm. deep. Cut lengthwise only.

• Then suck (and spit out) the poison — for a quarter hour. Note: If more than a half hour has passed since the bite, do not cut or suck the bite. By then it may do more harm than good.

• If you can get the right kind of snakebite antivenin, inject it, being careful to follow the instructions that come with the medicine. Take all precautions to prevent allergic shock. In order for the antivenin to be of much help,

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it should be injected not more than 3 hours after the bite. (For some snakes, like cobras, it must be given very quickly.)

Note: Different parts of the world have different kinds of poisonous snakes which require different antitoxins (antivenins). Find out what antitoxins are available in your area. Be prepared!

» Have snakebite antitoxin ready and study how to use it ahead of time, before someone is bitten!

• If you can get ice, wrap pieces in thick cloth and pack these around the limb that was bitten.

• If signs of infection develop, use penicillin. Poisonous snakebite is dangerous. Send for medical help —but always do the things explained above at once.

Most folk remedies for snakebite do little if any good. Never drink alcohol after a snakebite. It makes things worse!

Scorpion sting:

Some scorpions are far more poisonous than others. To adults, scorpion stings are rarely dangerous. Take aspirin and if possible put ice on the sting. (Emetine injected around the sting greatly reduces pain.) For the numbness and pain that sometimes last weeks or months, hot compresses may be helpful. To children under 5 years old, scorpion stings can be dangerous, especially if the sting is on the head or body. In some countries scorpion antitoxin is avail able. To do much good it must be injected within 2 hours after the child has been stung. Give aspirin or acetaminophen for the pain. If the child stops breathing, use mouth-to-mouth breathing. If the child who was stung is very young or has been stung on the main part of the body, or if you know the scorpion was of a deadly type — seek medical help fast.

— Healing with water

Most of us could live without medicines. But no one can live without water. In fact, over half (57%) of the human body is water. If everyone living in farms and villages made the best use of water, the amount of sickness and death — especially of children — could probably be cut in half. For example, correct use of water is basic both in the prevention and treatment of diarrhoea. In many areas diarrhoea is the most common cause of sickness and death in small children. Contaminated (unclean) water is often part of the cause. An important part of the prevention of diarrhoea is to boil water used for drinking or for preparing foods. This is especially important for babies. Babies' bottles and eating utensils should also be boiled. Washing one's hands with soap and water after a bowel movement (shitting) and before eating or handling foods is just as important.

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The common cause of death in children with diarrhoea is severe dehydration, or loss of too much water from the body. By giving a child with diarrhoea plenty of water (best with sugar or honey and salt), dehydration can often be prevented or corrected.

»Giving lots of liquids to a child with diarrhoea is more important than any medicine. In fact, if enough liquid is given, no medicine is usually needed in the treatment of diarrhoea.

— Right and wrong uses of modem medicines

Some medicines sold in pharmacies or village stores can be very useful. Others are of no value. Also, people sometimes use the best medicines in the wrong way, so that they do more harm than good.

»To be helpful, medicine must be used correctly.

Many people, including most doctors and health workers, prescribe far more medicines than are needed and by so doing cause much needless sickness and death.

» There is some danger in the use of any medicine.

Some medicines are much more dangerous than others. Unfortunately, people sometimes use very dangerous medicines for mild sicknesses. Never use a dangerous medicine for a mild illness.

» Remember: medicines can kill

Guidelines for the use of medicine:

→ Use medicines only when necessary.

→ Know the correct use and precautions for any medicine you use.

→ Be sure to use the right dose.

→ If the medicine does not help, or causes problems, stop using it.

→ When in doubt, seek the advice of a health worker.

Note: Some health workers and many doctors give medicines when none is needed, often because they think patients expect medicine and will not be satisfied unless they get some. Tell your doctor or health worker you only want medicine if it is definitely needed. This will save you money and be safer for your health.

» Only use a medicine when you are sure it is needed and when you are sure how to use it.

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